1. Avalanche Safety
2. Helicopters

Uses and Capabilities
Basic Rules of Helicopter Safety
Emergencies

3. Snow Mobiles

Safety Considerations
Snow Conditions
Tandem-Connecting Two Snow Mobiles
Turnaround
Getting Stuck
Terrain
Stream Crossings
Equipment

Use of Dogs in Avalanche Searches
Searcher Protocol Around Working Search Dogs

6. Nordic Teams
7. Ski Patrol Units

1. Avalanche Safety

Before we get started even discussing Search and Rescue's role in winter operations, every member of the team must have a basic understanding of Avalanche Safety. Avalanches can strike at anytime almost anywhere there is snow. You should always have the appropriate avalanche gear (avalanche beacon, test kit, shovel, probe etc.) when you go into the backcountry and know how to use it. Nothing can replace an Avalanche Course, but here are some good interactive sites to help either refresh you or to get you started thinking about avalanche safety:
Canadian Avalanche Association Online Training
US Forest Service National Avalanche Center

2. Helicopters

a. Uses and Capabilities. In winter search operations there are two main uses for helicopters. One use is for transporting searchers and equipment and the other is for rescues (or recoveries).

When working in overhead at a search operation, it is important for you to know the specific needs of the operation, the resources actually available and the capabilities of the equipment available.

Two extremely important capabilities in mountain operations are the altitude limitations of the aircraft and the experience of the pilot/crew. Under powered aircraft and/or inexperienced crews can prevent the success of an operation and even lead to disaster.

When assigned as a searcher who will be transported and/or utilizing a helicopter in a rescue/recovery, you must be clear on the safety rules pertaining to helicopters.

b. Basic Rules of Helicopter Safety:

Most helicopters should be approached from the front. An  exception being types such as the Chinook which are double rotary - the front rotor can  dip down to within 3 feet of the ground. These aircraft should be approached from the  side.

Turning rotor blades are dangerous.

Never approach/depart or enter/exit the aircraft unless  told to do so by a crew member. Never move toward the rear or under the tail boom of the  aircraft. Never step up, reach up, or allow any object to be extended towards a turning  rotor blade. Never walk uphill from the aircraft. Never touch the bubble of the aircraft.  Never smoke in or around the helicopter. Never slam the doors or let them swing in the  wind.

Always stay low when approaching/departing the aircraft.  Always fasten your seat belt; ensure your seat belt is inside before closing the door.  Always ask the pilot about emergency exits and escape procedures. Always dress for the  operating environment. Always keep well clear of the landing area. Always shield your eyes  near a helicopter when it is landing or taking off. Always approach from the downhill  side.

Listen to the crew members and follow their instructions  closely.

c. Emergencies . In an emergency while in the aircraft, remain calm - the crew has been trained to handle all problems. Remain inside the aircraft until the rotor blades have stopped turning.

If an emergency occurs while you are outside the aircraft, take swift defensive action to protect yourself. Stay low, get away from the aircraft and seek cover to protect yourself from debris.

If at all possible, when being transported by helicopter be certain to have your pack with you (rather than having it brought up on another flight or by a ground vehicle.)

3. Snow Mobiles

a. Safety Considerations. Travel in tandem, rather than side-to-side. Use/be qualified, experienced operators. Carry survival gear and skis or snowshoes. Maintain a complete tool kit, snow shovel, etc. Maintain communications. Know your limits and abilities as a snow mobile operator.

b. Snow Conditions. On packed or old trail snow loads up to 300 pounds can be carried; a second rider is okay; there may be overheating problems with some liquid-cooled models; good traction up hills; easy skijoring (towing of persons on skis). On new snow over old snow (10" or less) there will be a loss of traction reducing the amount of loads and number of people skijoring; second rider usually okay; greater possibility of getting stuck. With an abundance of new snow, the use of snow mobiles may not be practical for a few days; a single experienced rider may be able to break trail and pack it to allow heavier loads to be moved; there is a dramatic reduction in hill climb angle; it is easy to get stuck; there will be a loss of breaking on steep downhill. On snow wet with precipitation, there is a dramatic reduction in hill climb angle; the snow will not pack well, limiting load ability; loss of reasonable breaking on steep downhill; it is very easy to get stuck.

c. Tandem-Connecting Two Snowmobiles Together. These can be used to pull heavy loads in powder or wet snow conditions.

d. Turnaround . It is usually easier to move the back end around and then straighten the skis.

e. Getting Stuck . If you are stuck on a hill the objective is to get the skis pointing down hill. You may have to shovel a flat pad to keep the snow mobile from rolling over as it is moved past the side of the hill. Moving the vehicle will require a combination of moving back and front end down hill.

If you are stuck in a hole, shovel an easy angle path out. A second snow mobile may assist by pulling with a rope.

If you are stuck on the flat, you may need to pack down the snow in front and under the vehicle. Someone pushing from behind will help, too.

f. Terrain. Snow mobiles can traverse over rocks and logs, up and down hills, along water drainages and over frozen lakes. Caution should be taken going over or through any terrain which is not a well traveled path (such as over a frozen lake, etc.).

g. Stream Crossings. Snow mobiles can cross streams which are 8-10" deep maximum. Shovel an easy angle on both side to avoid getting stuck.

h. Equipment. You  should be accompanied by a second snow mobile and driver. Carry basic survival equipment  with you at all times. Repair equipment for the vehicle should include a shovel, 50'  of tow rope, an extra drive belt, extra spark plugs and a tool kit. At least one of the  two people on a snow mobile should carry an operating radio,

4. Snow Cats

Skiers are familiar with the large tractors which groom ski runs and cross-country trails. These vehicles have tremendous hill climbing and descending capabilities. They can travel over and through virtually any snow terrain which can accommodate their width.

Snow Cats are equipped with lights for night operations and have towing capabilities for a variety of attachments. With a payload of close to 2000 pounds, snow cats can be used for transport of personnel and equipment and for rescue/recovery carry-outs.

A snow cat travels at 0-10.5 miles per hour; and can turn on its own axis.

Ski areas, municipalities and road agencies (such as Cal-Trans) are resources for these vehicles.

5. Search Dogs

Search dogs are used in winter operations for trailing and wilderness air scenting, as well as for avalanche searching.

Dogs have been used since the early 1800's to find victims of avalanches. The most famous is a St. Bernard, Barry, who lived at the St. Bernard Hospice in the Swiss Alps around 1810. He was credited with saving the lives of 41 people caught in avalanches or lost on the trails through the Alps in snowstorms.

a. Use of Dogs in Avalanche Searches . Dogs are the quickest means of finding victims in an avalanche. They are far quicker than probe lines.

Wilderness air scenting dogs who are in training and on-call all year round are the best avalanche dogs.

Unless stationed on the ski slopes, the avalanche search dog is unlikely to be the first responder. By the time the dog arrives to the slopes or to the back country location, there will probably be deputy sheriffs, ski patrol personnel and volunteer rescuers on the scene.

The search dog must immediately begin to search the area, acquainting himself with the personnel at the scene so as to discriminate against their scent, ignoring packs, skis and other paraphernalia, including surface scents such as spit and other mucus discharges from the rescuers - footprints, spilled trail mix, candy wrappers, etc.

It is extremely important that searcher/rescuers not spit, drop food or wrappers, etc. on the ground.

On-scene rescuers will continue their probe line and beacon searches and the dog will work among them. The dog will first run a hasty search over the entire avalanche run, then fine search the run out zone at the toe, then other depositional zones and eventually the entire area.

The search dog will indicate victims under the snow by enthusiastic digging. After being pulled away, the dog will move on and continue searching for others. Upon being brought back after the shovelers have cleared away snow, the dog will again indicate by furiously digging.

b. Searcher Protocol Around Working Search Dogs. In winter search operations, the basic protocols of working around search dogs apply:

Avoid disturbing the dogs while they are working or at  rest.

Do not contaminate the search area with more scent from  yourself than you shed naturally. (Spitting, urinating, dropping food or garbage, etc.)

Stay behind the handler and dog if you are partnered  with them.

Handle scent articles with care. Do not touch any scent  article directly, place it in a clean unused paper bag and seal it in a plastic bag.

Staging Area Managers should designate separate, quiet  areas for the dogs to rest and await deployment.

6. Nordic Teams

"Nordic" refers to the ground pounders of winter back-country/mountain search.

The number of members per team (there always being at least two) and the equipment used (cross-country skis or snow shoes) will be determined by the resources available, type of search, and conditions (weather, terrain, snow, etc.)

While Nordic Teams may be either on cross-country skis or snow shoes, the two types of equipment are not mixed on one team. Each team will use only one type of equipment.

Nordic Teams my be used to search within the boundaries of a ski area or in the back-country.

7. Ski Patrol Units

Ski Patrol Unit members are regularly scheduled employees of ski areas. They are the first responders to reports of skiers who are ill, injured, missing or out-of-bounds and to reports or sightings of avalanches within ski areas.

Ski Patrol Units work within the boundaries of the ski areas only.

Unit members are expert skiers with thorough knowledge of the ski area and immediate out-of-bounds areas. As a resource, they can be utilized to cover the ski area making other resources (Nordic Teams, for example) available for back-country searches.

Prepared by Sandy Locke updated by Daniel Knox